Urbach became ordained rabbi in his native Poland in 1934 before making aliya to Land of Israel in 1938. He served as a chaplain in the British Army in World War II. Later he was a high school teacher before becoming a professor at Hebrew University in Jerusalem.

Mr. Urbach published four important volumes on Jewish history and religious law. He was active in trying to bridge differences between the nonreligious majority and observant Jews, by melding Jewish tradition with modern culture. As a member of the Hebrew Language Academy, Mr. Urbach was involved in efforts to make Hebrew a modern-day language. He was also a former President of Israel's Academy of Sciences and Humanities.

CONTENTS

Chapter I: The Study of the History of the Beliefs and Concepts of the Sages

The nature of the sources—the methods of modern Jewish scholarship—the studies of Christian scholars—the apologetic approach—Moore's work—the historical view of Yitzhak Baer—L. Finkelstein's attempt—Talmudic research. pp. 1–18

Chapter II: The Belief in One God

The monotheistic concept—the recitation of the Shema‛ and the Decalogue— the negation of idolatry—kofer ba-‘iqqar [one who denies the primary principle of faith]—denial of Providence and the ‘Epicurean'—faith and its meaning. pp. 19–36

Chapter III: The Shekhina—The Presence of God in the World

God's names and attributes—immanence and transcendentalism—the Shekhina and wisdom—the use of ‘Shekhina' in the Targums—in Tannaitic literature— the Shekhina as a separate light—the wings of the Shekhina—the ‘confinement' of the Shekhina—causing the Shekhina to dwell in the Sanctuary—the Shekhina, which accompanies the people in exile—the departure of the Shekhina—the orientation during prayer—the Shekhina as hypostasis. pp. 37–65

Chapter IV: Nearness and Distance—Omnipresent and Heaven

The use of Maqôm [‘Place,' Omnipresent] in Tannaitic sources—the Amoraic interpretation of this epithet—the epithet ‘Heaven' in the Bible and in Tannaitic literature—the interrelationship between the two epithets—the views ascribing a foreign origin to the epithet Maqom and their rejection—the disuse of the epithet Maqom and the disputation with the proponents of dualistic doctrines— the epithet ha-Qodesh and Qadôsh Barûkh Hû—the epithet 'Elyôn. pp. 66–79

Chapter V: The Epithet Gôvura [Might] and the Power of God

The concept of the power of the Deity—the power of the gods and fate in the Greek religion—the power of God in the Bible—the epithet Gevura in the Tannaitic sources—the concept of dynamis—the worship of images—the worship of kings—the might of the Holy One blessed be He—the benediction Gôvûròt in the ‛Amida prayer—the polemic against the worship of kings—the destruction of the Temple and the emphasis on the Lord's might—Revelation and Torah as an expression of His might—the eschatological orientation in Paul's conception of Divine power—the dependence of Gôvura on Torah and repentance. pp. 80–96

Chapter VI: Magic and Miracle

The opposition to magic and sorcery—sorcery and idolatry—Philo's approach and the Tannaitic conception—the spread of magical practices among the common people—the influence of the Sages—the question of the legitimate miracles—miracles in the Bible—the miracles wrought by the early pietists and by Tannaim and Amoraim—miracles as an expression of the Lord's might— the religious significance of miracles—miracles as a means of sanctifying God's name—miracles and the law of recompense—miracles and the law of nature— miracles in the Halakha—miracles in the Christian faith—the difference between the miraculous tales in Rabbinic sources and the Evangelical stories—the tendency to restraint discernible in the miracle stories—the restriction of exaggerated eulogy in prayers. pp. 97–123

Chapter VII: The Power of the Divine Name

Oaths and adjurations by the Divine Name—the use of the Name in magical papyri—the use and enunciation of the Ineffable Name in the Temple—the corrupt teaching of the sectarians—Divine Names in amulets—Divine Names of twelve, forty-two, and seventy-two letters—the secret and tradition of the Ineffable Name. pp. 124–134

Chapter VIII: The Celestial Retinue

Angels in the Bible—the exegetical methods of the Sages in interpreting Scriptural passages concerning angels—the Guardian Angels of the Gentile peoples— Metattron—the assignment of tasks to angels in Tannaitic and Amoraic homilies and the avoidance of corporeal expressions—the names of angels—Michael and Gabriel—Michael and Satan—Michael and Samma'el—the angels of the Revelation on Mount Sinai in the Tannaitic and Amoraic homilies—Israel's superiority over the angels—the Jewish-Christian polemic and the abolition of angel's missions—angels and individuals—the status and pre-eminence of man—Moses' superiority over the angels—the angels that accompany man— Satan's angels, the destroying angels, and the problem of evil in the world— parallels from the sources of the Persian religion—the angels in apocalyptic literature—its influence on Rabbinic literature—the serpent and Samma'el's rebellion—the sons of God and the fall of the angels—Satan the prosecutor and his task in the episode of Adam and Eve—Jacob's struggle—the angel of Death and the demise of Moses—the Celestial Retinue and the Celestial Bet Din—the opposition to the worship of angels and to the recitation of prayers to angels. pp. 135–183

Chapter IX: He Who Spoke and the World Came into Being

The work of creation—esoteric teaching—the approach of R. Ishmael and R. Akiba—the order of creation and the dispute between the School of Shammai and the School of Hillel—creation in thought and the doctrine of Ideas— rejection of the theory of creation from materia prima—mythological dicta at the end of the Tannaitic period and the beginning of the Amoraic period— anti-Gnostic polemic—the Torah and the creation of the world—the problem of the influence of Philo's thought—the angels and the creation of the world— the creation of light—the sequence of times and worlds that preceded creation— the world was created by an utterance—the dogma that God created the world. pp. 184–213

Chapter X: Man

Man as the goal of creation—the body-nefesh relationship and the nature of the nefesh according to the Bible—the creation of man in the image of God— the three parts of man—the separation of body from nefesh and the doctrine of recompense—the creation of the body—the difference between Adam and his descendants—residual myths and legends, whose objectionable element has been removed, in the Amoraic homilies—Rav's teaching and the Iranian myth— the spirit of Adam—the formation of the child—man as a microcosm—the pre-existence of the nefesh—the treasure-house of souls—the problem of the integration of the nefesh with the body—is the embryo a living entity, or only ‘its mother's thigh'?—the tractate of the creation of the child and the Platonic myth—the attitude to the body in the Hellenistic and Gnostic doctrines—the Tannaitic and Amoraic attitude and the parallelism in Zarathustra's conception— the dispute between the School of Hillel regarding the creation of man pp. 214–254

Chapter XI: On Providence

Josephus' testimony concerning the concepts of the sects regarding fate and free will—the Qumran Sect's doctrine of fate—the term ‘Providence' and its meaning—R. Akiba's teaching—the opposition to the ancient doctrine of fate and Paul's teaching of grace—reward and punishment in relation to Providence—emphasis on the principle of freedom of choice—the integration of man's free will and the ways of Providence in the School of R. Ishmael—Ben Azzai's doctrine regarding the reward of the precepts—the restriction of reward to the world to come—the restriction of free will to the first decision—the influence of faith on astrology and its restriction—the view of the last of the Amoraim—a complementary approach. pp. 255–285

Chapter XII: The Written Law and the Oral Law

The term ‘Torah' and its connotation—Torah and νόμος—the term ‘Oral Law' and the unwritten law—the antithesis between letter and spirit—extreme allegorization and the anti-Paulinian polemic—the removal of the Torah from dependence on supernatural forces—Torah and prophecy—abolition of the difference between the Written Law and the Oral Law. pp. 286–314

Chapter XIII: The Commandments

1. Their Source and the Ways of their Observance
Torah and commandment—revelation and ‘the autonomy of morality'—the difference between ancient sources and later Midrashim—theonomy and free will—the authority of the Sages—ways of keeping the commandments— beyond the requirements of the law and the quality of lovingkindness—option and commandment—Hillel's view. pp. 315–342

2. The Number, Classification, and Evaluation of the Precepts
The number 613 precepts and its source—the relative value of the precepts— reward as a criterion—light and grave sins—the sanctifìcation and desecration of the Divine Name—the place of the Ten Commandments. pp. 342–365

3. The Reasons of the Precepts
The reasons for reward and the reason for adding the human factor—the test— the ritual-worship basis—symbolic reasons—educational reasons—measure for measure—the reasons of the precepts as an explanation for changes and additions—forgoing the discovery of reason—opposition to exploring the reasons of the commandments—the allegorization of the precepts in Hellenistic Judaism—the joy of the commandment—observing precepts for their own sake and otherwise—intent and observance of the commandments. pp. 365–399

Chapter XIV: Acceptance of the Yoke of the Kingdom of Heaven. Love and Reverence

The reading of the Shema‛ and the recitation of ‘Blessed be the name of the glory of His kingdom for ever and ever'—the reason for saying it in a low voice— the term ‘fear of Heaven'—the episode of the ‛Aqeda and the terms ‘Fear' and ‘love'—Philo's attitude to ‘Fear of Heaven'—fear out of love—Job's worship of God—Job's indictments in the Targumim—in Tannaitic dicta—in the book The Testament of Job—Abraham and Job—the ways of fear and love— the teaching of R. Akiba—fear and love in Amoraic dicta. pp. 400–419

Chapter XV: Man's Accounting and the World's Accounting

1. Sin and Death Adam's sin and its consequences—Ben-Sira's statements—original sin according to Paul—the views of the author of the Syriac Baruch and of Ezra IV—the decree of death and the giving of the Torah—death on account of the Serpent— death as punishment for the sins of the individual—the death of the righteous— the concept of death's power of atonement and its source. pp. 420–436

2. Reward and Punishment
Acts of an individual and collective retribution—the trial of souls after death and the judgement of man in his lifetime—measure for measure—crisis to which ‘the doctrine of reward and punishment' is subject at times of religious persecution—the view of R. Akiba. pp. 436–444

3. The Reason for Suffering
‘Suffering is precious'—suffering as punishment—the suffering of love— inviting suffering—opposition to asceticism. pp. 444–448

4. The Attribute of Justice and the Attribute of Mercy
The conception of the attribute of punishment and the attribute of good in Tan-naitic teaching—the attribute of justice and the attribute of mercy as hypostases— the names of God and His attributes—Philo's view—the popular conception— the view of Rabban Gamaliel—God's compassion as a reward for man's compassion—the views of the Amoraim—the struggle of the attribute of justice. pp. 448–461

5. The Power of Repentance
‘Reward and punishment' and repentance—repentance in the Bible and its appraisal by the Sages—the nature of repentance—R. Me'ir and Elisha b. Avuya—enlargement of the sphere and scope of repentance by the Amoraim— specific days for repentance. pp. 462–471

6. The two Inclinations
Repentance and the war of the inclinations—the good inclination and the evil inclination—the means for waging the struggle against the evil inclination—the evil inclination identified with ‘other gods'—the craving for idolatry—sexual desire—the survival of the human species—serving God with both inclinations— the stratagems of the (evil) inclination—the conquest and suppression of the (evil) inclination—the stories of Amoraim concerning the testings of the Tan-naim—the prayers for the subjugation of the (evil) inclination—the attitude of the Sages to the problems of theodicy. pp. 471–483

7. The Righteous and Wicked
Who is righteous?—the dangers to which the righteous man is exposed—the legend of the righteous—the world exists through the merit of righteous men— their number—the birth of the righteous man—his extraordinary image and qualities—his influence on his environment—the righteous man and his generation—the decline of the generations—the merit of the righteous and its effect—the various views concerning the merit of the Patriarchs and the destiny of the nation—ancestral merit and the individual—the doctrine of R. Akiba— the opposition to ancestral merit and the deep-rooted belief in it—the living bestow merit on the dead—sons bestow merit on their fathers—the atonement of the dead through the living. pp. 483–511

8. Interpretation of Theodicy
The individual's accounting—the contradictions in the doctrine of retribution
and the preservation of the principle of reward and punishment—theodicean methods of interpreting harsh Scriptural episodes—past events explained by later events—the selling of Josephus and the martyred Sages—‘What have you to do with the mysteries of the All-Merciful?' pp. 511–523
 

Chapter XVI: The People of Israel and its Sages

1. Election and Reality
The idea of election in the Bible—the derision of the Gentiles at the Jewish claim to election in times of oppression—the Sages' replies to the sectarians— the answer they gave to their own people—the concept of election as a cosmic act—the twofold election—Israel chose its God—the choosing people became the chosen people—the nation's destiny is determined by its attitude to its God since the acceptance of the Torah—the implications of mutual suretyship. pp. 525–541

2. Election and Proselytization
The function of spreading Israel's faith among the Gentiles—the effect of the destruction of the Temple—explanations of the Jewish people's dispersion— the attitude to Christians and pagans—the struggle on two fronts—the laws governing the acceptance of proselytes—the attitude to proselytes in the post-Hadrianic period—the attitude of the Amoraim—the strength of the consciousness of election—its expression in prayers and benedictions. pp. 541–554

3. Indictment and Defense of the Congregation of Israel
The attitude to the episode of the golden calf—the assessment of the work of the prophets among their people—the function of reproof and defence. pp. 554–564

4. The Status of the Sages in the Days of the Hasmoneans
The cessation of prophecy—the Great Synagogue—Scribes and Sages—Ben Sira's description—Johanan the High Priest—Simeon b. Shetah—Shema‛ya and Avtalion. pp. 564–576

5. Hillel's Character and Work
Hillel and the Sons of Bathyra—the attitude to the Holy Spirit—the enactments of Hillel—his influence on the institutions of the Temple and Sanhedrin—his attitude to the masses of the people—the laws of purity and impurity—the differences between the associations of the Pharisees and the Essenes and the Qumran Covenanters—the changed meaning of the term ‛am ha-'ares and the consequences in the relationship between them and the haverîm [associates]— Hillel's attributes and conduct. pp. 576–593

6. The Regime of the Sages after the Destruction of the Temple
The School of Shammai and the School of Hillel—the Zealots in the period of the Revolt—the work of R. Johanan b. Zakkai—the episode of ‛Aqaviah b. Mahalalel— the dynasty of the Patriarchs of the House of Hillel—the struggle for freedom of Halakhic decision—the problem of the livelihood of the Sages— the clash between ideals and reality. pp. 593–603

7. The Struggle between Learning and Practice in the Creation of the Image of the Sage
The attitude of the Sages to rulership and the exercise of authority—the extreme approach of R. Simeon b. Yohai and the attitude of his colleagues—the relationship between Torah study and good works—the assessment of Torah as the supreme value—the reluctance to give Halakhic decisions and to act as judges and its causes—the goal of wisdom is penitence and good deeds. pp. 603–620

 
8. The Internal Relations in the Academies of the Sages
The desire to annoy—between praise and dispraise—friction due to competition for distinguished disciples—the discussions in the academies conducted in a free spirit—the creation of class consciousness—the exhortation to support the Sages—recognition of the dangers that beset the Sage—the test of the Sage. pp. 620–630

9. The Sages among their People
The dilemma of the relationship between themselves—the dicta against the 'amme ha-'ares and their significance—the question of pedigree—the marriage factor—recognition of the virtues of simple folk—action taken to draw them closer to the Torah and the commandments—the responsibility for the integrity of the Congregation of Israel as a whole—Israel as one people—the antithesis: Israel-the nations of the world. pp. 630–648

Chapter XVII: On Redemption
The terminology connected with the concept of redemption—the vision of the prophets of Israel—the apocalyptic literature—the belief in resurrection—the belief in the redemption of the nation and the country in the pre-Destruction period—the benediction for redemption—the blessings of the High Priest on the Day of Atonement—the conception of redemption in Sirach—the portrayal of redemption in apocalyptic circles—the Messianic document in The Psalms of Solomon and the antagonism to the Hasmoneans—the destruction of the Temple and the change in the conception of redemption—religious-national redemption bears a restorative character—redemption and repentance—the dispute between R. Joshua and R. Eliezer, the revolt of Bar Kokhba—R. Akiba's attitude to the revolt and the personality of Bar Kokhba—his opponents—the failure and its consequences—the penetration of the Utopian-apocalyptic concept into the circles of the Sages—realistic concepts and calculators of the End— the personality of the Messiah—his pre-existence—the Messiah's names— the suffering Messiah—Messiah the son of Joseph and Messiah the son of David—the negation of the image of a personal Messiah—God is the Redeemer—the absolute faith in redemption. pp. 649–690

Notes 693
Bibliography 1011
General Index 1037
Index of Rabbinic Sources 1056
Index of Non-Rabbinical Sources 1074









 

The conventional ‘doctrine of reward and punishment' underwent a grave crisis in the period of Hadrian's religious persecution, which led to a change in Rabbinic thinking on theodicy. It was not the tribulation that came upon the righteous from a higher power that called for an explanation, nor the bitter outcry against the troubles that were equally the lot of the wicked and the righteous that demanded an answer, but the fact that the resolve to observe the commandments was itself the cause of death and suffering!

However, there is not wanting the stereotyped explanation that views the tortures and sufferings of the (ten) martyrs as punishment for miniscule transgressions: ‘When R. Ishmael and R. Simeon went forth to execution, R. Simeon said to R. Ishmael: “Master, my heart is ill at ease, because I know not the cause of my execution.”

Said R. Ishmael to R. Simeon “Did it never happen that a man came to you for judgement, or to ask you a law, and you kept him waiting until you finished sipping your drink, or you tied your sandal, or put on your cloak? But the Torah declared ‘If thou delay [usually rendered ‘afflict'] in any wise', and the principle applies irrespective of whether the delay is long or short.” Thereupon he replied “Master, you have comforted me.”'

Clearly this source was influenced by the Mishna cited earlier (p. 438) ‘The sword comes to the world on account of the delay of justice.' In a later source the Rabbis did not wish to attribute so grave a sin to Rabban Simeon b. Gamaliel,and reacting to this explanation, R. Simeon said: ‘The attendant was instructed that whether I was sleeping or dining, no one should be prevented from entering.' R. Ishmael then raised another possibility: ‘“Perhaps when you were sitting and expounding on the Temple Mount and all the multitudes of Israel were sitting before you, you grew arrogant?” He replied: “Ishmael, my brother, a man must be prepared to accept his affliction.”'

It seems, however, that these explanations do not emanate from the generation that suffered the persecution; at all events they did not satisfy R. Akiba. He and his colleagues were not required tocommit transgressions that made them liable to the death penalty, and concerning which it was ordained that ‘a man should let himself be killed rather than transgress'.

With regard to persecutive decrees of this nature it could be said that the people on whom they were imposed ‘were liable to death at the hands of heaven',77 and thusthey attained their punishment and atonement and share in the world to come. But R. Akiba and those of his colleagues—but not all ofthem78—who adopted his attitude observed the commandments demonstratively and in defiance of the ruling power.

‘Once when R.Akiba was being tried before the wicked Tineius Rufus, the time arrived for reading the Shôma‛ and he began to recite it joyfully. Said he [T. Rufus]: “Old man, old man, either you are a magician or you bear pain with contumacy.” R. Akiba answered him: “Woeto that man! I am neither a magician nor do I bear pain with contumacy; but all my life I have read this verse: ‘And thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thy heart and with all thy soul [i. e. life] and with all thy might [i. e. wealth].' (Truly) I loved Him with all my heart, and I loved Him with all my wealth, but I was never called upon to face the ordeal of ‘with all my soul'. Now that I experience (the test of) ‘with all my soul', and the time for reading the Shôma‛has arrived, and I have not thrust it aside, therefore I am reciting the Shôma‛ with joy.”' This acceptance of suffering is voided of its reason and significance, if it is explained as a punishment for any sin. Indeed it is told that

‘When R. Akiba was killed at Caesarea, the news reached R. Judah b. Bava and R. Hananiah b. Teradion. They arose and girded their loins with sackloth and rent their garments and cried: “Oh, our brethren, hearken unto us! R. Akiba was not slain for robbery, or for not toiling in the Torah with all his strength. R. Akiba was slain only as a sign, as it is said "Thus shall Ezekiel be to you for a sign; according to all that. . . then ye will know thatI am the Lord God' (Ezekiel xxiv 24)”.'81 ‘This doctrine of R. Akiba, which regards the acceptance of suffering with love as the highest goal of him that serves the Lord, performing the commandments in the spirit of ‘with all thy soul—even though He takes thy soul', has no parallel except in the conduct and words of Socrates before his death; but the difference in the manner of their execution should be noted.

R. Akiba, and his disciples who followed in his footsteps, not only saved, by their acts, Israel's Torah and the observance of its precepts, but also radically transformed the evaluation of the relationship between the troubles and tribulations that befall the individual or the community, and sin and iniquity.

III. THE REASON FOR SUFFERING

The change that occurred in R. Akiba's own outlook is reflected in a twofold tradition concerning R. Akiba's visit to the house of his teacher R. Eliezer, who was on his death bed. In one tradition it is stated. . .

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